Sub-band coding Essay Example for Free

Sub-band coding Essay Abstract Sub-band coding refers to the process of subdividing audio and speech signals into a number of frequency bands before each of these bands is digitally encoded on its own. As lower frequency bands contain more speech or audio energy than higher frequency bands, they require more bits in order to be encoded. Sub-band coding is useful for this purpose. This paper will further explain the usefulness of sub-band coding and describe each step involved in this method. Introduction Analog signals include video, radar, audio and speech signals. These signals must be converted into digital form so as to be digitally processed. The digital form of an analog signal is a number sequence with finite precision. The A/D converter is the name given the process of conversion (Proakis Manolakis, 2007). This process is subdivided into the following processes: sampling, quantizing and coding. Sampling entails the conversion of continuous time signals into discrete time signals with the use of samples of continuous time signals at a known frequency. Quantization involves changes to continuous time values of the discrete time signals so as to convert them into discrete time values. The process of coding gives binary numbers to quantized signals depending on their values. There are various ways of converting analog signals into digital form for both storage and transmission. Sub-band coding happens to be an efficient method for this conversion, especially with medium bit rates (Pirani Zingarelli, 1984, 645). As the rate of sampling alters with time, either with an increase or decrease, the efficiency of the conversion process can be enhanced by minimizing the energy of transmitting or sending signals, depending, of course, on their sample rates, so that a greater amount of energy is made available for high sampling rates. It is also possible to compress data in order to reduce the amount of energy required for the process of transmission. This should be achieved without impairing the quality of the signal that is decoded (Crochiere, 1981, 1633). Sub-band coding is an effective technique for data compression. With the Matlab program, sub-band coding can be developed before it is implemented in the C7613. Here, the coder of sub-bands uses sampled signals as inputs. Depending on the energy of different signals, the various subs of the sub-band coder are assigned different numbers of bits. Thus, sub-band coding is expected to provide output signals that are similar to input signals. (See Sub-band coder in Figure 1, resulting in differing accuracies for output signals. Accuracies are dependent on the different values of bits used in the quantizers. It is preferable to give a greater number of bits for higher energy subs of the signal). Sub-band coding Sub-band coding involves the sub-band coder and sub-band encoded. There are different subs in the sub-band coder responsible for filtering the input sample with both filters, H1 and H2, in addition to down sampling. Sub-band encoded, on the other hand, entails quantizing, upsampling and filtering with K1 and K2 before the bands are summed for the final signal. (See Figure 1). As shown in this figure, if the rate of sampling the signal is Fs sample per second, the frequencies of each of the subdivisions of the sub-band coder can be computed. The signal spectrum is split into two equal-width parts by the first frequency subdivision: a lowpass signal (0FFs/4) and a highpass signal (Fs/4FFs/2). Sub-band coder The signals in both lowpass and highpass frequency bands require interpolation and summation. The filtering step serves to do away with signal noise, which may be lower or higher in frequency than the required signal. Filtering further serves to reduce the rates of sub-band sampling in order to minimize overall bit rates for encoding of signals. Hence, a superior performance in sub-band coding can be achieved by developing an accurate filter design (Crochiere, 1633). Filters that are idle, for example, the Brick wall filters as shown in Figure 2, are suitable for this purpose. However, such filters are not available outside of theory. Aliasing must be avoided; this is achieved by the decimation of sub-band signals. As actual filters have overlaps, it is best to resolve the problem of aliasing with the use of quadrature mirror filters. These filters have frequency response characteristics as shown in Figure 3 (Proakis Manolakis). The following equation shows perfect reconstruction: . From this equation we chose . Next, the filtered signal is down sampled with the process of down sampling. This process involves the deletion of every second sample. If there are three samples, for instance, the second sample would have to be deleted. This deletion reduces the number of samples to be quantized. Using the quantizer, the down sampled signal is quantized following deletion. Through quantization, we add quantization noise to bits being sampled. Thus, every set of two samples is averaged in order to approximate continuous time input signals on each of the bands by discrete numbers of samples (Veldhuis, Breeuwer, Van Der Wall, 1989).

MAC and Physical Layer Enhancements

MAC and Physical Layer Enhancements Abstract Communication technologies have improved a lot since the time we started using radio waves for communicating. We have seen advancement not just in the Cellular side but also on the WiFi side. The availability of limited spectrum has been the issue of the 21st century. As we have improved our technologies from the First generation which was based on analog communication to Fourth Generation which is based on Orthogonal Frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM), the free space in the spectrum has also reduced which has created the problems of congestion. We have come to the point where there is a demand for high capacity, better throughput, constant connectivity and high spectral efficiency. To cater this demand, we not only need high-end devices but equally efficient core network. This paper would focus on the converging technology enhancements at Physical and MAC (Media Access Control) layer of the Fifth generation (5G) on the cellular side and 802.11ad on WiFi side. I. Introduction With the increasing number of users, there is a spectral crunch in both the licensed and unlicensed spectrum. Licensed spectrum is the frequency chunk which is bought by the telecom companies, and a company can use its specific frequency band. The technologies in the licensed spectrum are GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication), CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access), LTE (Long Term Evolution). Unlicensed spectrum is the frequency chunk which is free and can be used by anyone. The technologies used in unlicensed spectrum are Bluetooth, WiFi. The increasing number of users have created the need for finding new spectrums and simultaneously new technologies which can be used to improve the efficacy of both cellular and WiFi communication. New standards i.e. 5G for cellular communication and 802.11ad for WiFi are going to use high-frequency bands which were never used before. This untapped potential is going to be a game changer. It will not just improve the spectral efficiency and th e throughput but will also increase the capacity. Technologies such as 802.11ac and LTE-Advanced (Long term evolution-advanced) could provide data rates as high as 1 Gigabytes per second (Gbps) [5] [6]. Also, LTE-A used 2620-2690 MHz (Mega Hertz), and 802.11ac used 5GHz (Giga Hertz) band for data transfer [1] [5]. 802.11ac and LTE-A employed technologies such as MIMO (multiple input, multiple output), beamforming which helped in achieving necessary throughput and capacity requirements, but now even these enhancements need necessary upgradation and changes to support the ever-increasing demand. Not only this but the cost of the wired backhaul is also a big concern. All these needs must be met in 5G and 802.11ad. The cost of wired backhaul can be reduced by moving towards mm-wave (Millimeter wave) which will not just decrease the cost of backhaul but will also improve the overall throughput [1]. This can be a converging point for the two technologies. 5G will be using frequency band i.e. 28 and 38 GHz, and 802.11ad will be using the 60GHz band which falls in mm-wave frequency band [1] [2]. Directional beamforming will be another addition to both 5G and 802.11ad wherein we will direct the signal towards the intended receiver that will help in reducing the power required [1] [2]. Figure 1. Improvement in performance from 4G to 5G. [8] Figure 1 gives a clarity about the targets which were set after using International Mobile Telecommunications-Advanced (IMT-Advanced Standard) i.e. 4G to enhance its performance in case of International Mobile Telecommunications-2020 (IMT-2020 Standard) i.e. the 5G standard [8]. II. Physical Layer Enhancements Here are some of the enhancements at the Physical layer of 802.11ad and 5G: 1. Millimeter Wave: (i) Millimeter wave in 802.11ad: Propagation of signal in the 60GHz unlicensed spectrum is different from that of 5GHz and 2.4GHz which were used in previous WiFi protocols. The frequency range in which the 60GHz falls is the Millimeter wave frequency band. Millimeter wave band will allow faster data transfer and will help us in using wireless docking stations. This will reduce the cost of backhaul as we will be removing the wires. The issues with 60GHz spectrum are its smaller range due to high attenuation, as the wavelength is small thus it causes blockage due to concrete walls [2]. We can also see from the figure 2. that the effect of oxygen in the atmosphere at 60GHz is high and causes atmospheric absorption of the millimeter wave. These are some of the limitations of 60 GHz band which are being looked at like the issue of absorption by oxygen can be reduced by using band Figure 2. High Atmospheric absorption at 60GHz. [1] (ii) Millimeter wave in 5G: The proposed band for 5G is 28GHz and 38GHz which falls in the region of millimeter wave. This is going to help in increase the data rate. The proposed data rate is nearly 20Gbps which is nearly 20 times that of 4G [8]. Millimeter waves can travel smaller distances as the wavelength is small which causes high attenuation due to atmospheric absorption. This can be mitigated by using the concept of small cells in our network. Cell size can be up to 200 meters. Figure 3. Attenuation Due to Heavy Rainfall. [1] Figure 3 shows the attenuation due to heavy rainfall of 25 millimeter/hour for a 28GHz band for 1 Kilometer cell size i.e. 7db which will be only 1.4db for a cell size of 200 meter [1]. 2. Beamforming: (i) Directional Beamforming in 802.11ad: In directional beamforming, the signals are directed to the intended receiver. It has been introduced instead of using an omnidirectional antenna which used to send the beam in all the directions reducing the power of the signal. But it is highly impractical to use highly-directional transmissions as there is a high chance of attenuation due to blockages. This can be prevented by using automatic gain control. MAC mechanisms are also affected due to the Highly directional communications such that the devices are not able to know that there is some other communication going on which increases the chances of collision. Golay sequences are used to reduce these chances of collisions. Golay sequences are the complementary sequences and help in synchronization and automatic gain control that in turn helps in attaining a throughput of 27.5Mbps thus making Management frames more efficient. Sum of out-of-phase Autocorrelation coefficients for Golay sequ ences being zero reduces the level of side lobes which in turn helps in reducing the chance of collision [2]. (ii) Adaptive beamforming in 5G: Beamforming is a concept in which we change the specific weights at the antenna level such that we direct the signal to a specific area by concentrating the power in the main lobe and reducing the power of signals in the side lobe. This will increase the throughput and hence will improve the user experience. In adaptive beamforming, the channel is used in an efficient manner which also helps in reducing the issue of interference. This can be achieved by using the concept of scheduling in different base stations. This can be used in a very interesting manner in 5G, and it will also help by improving the coordination between various eNodeBs. Hence the concept of adaptive beamforming will make the 5G network faster and more efficient [9]. 3. MIMO: (i) Multiuser-MIMO (MU-MIMO) in 802.11ad: At physical layer level 802.11ad works in two modes i.e. OFDM and Single carrier mode. MIMO is used for diversity in communication. In multiuser MIMO for 802.11ad, we use a matrix of a minimum of 2X2 (2 receiver antennas and 2 transmitter antennas). We can send signals to 2 or more users at one time with a very high throughput because we are employing OFDM. Previously we were employing only single user-MIMO wherein we used to send multiple signals to only one user. No doubt it gave high speed, but we were not able to use the limited unlicensed spectrum efficiently. Thus, with the advent of Multiuser-MIMO, the problem of low efficiency has been reduced [2] [10]. Figure 4. Block diagram of Transmitter in MIMO [10]. From figure 4 we can see how the data is sent using MIMO technique. Here firstly data is sent to the scrambler. After scrambling the data, it is encoded by the LDPC (low-density parity-check) encoder for tone interleaving. After interleaving the OFDM processed data we apply Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) on the data. Finally, we add a guard interval to protect the sent data [10]. (ii) Massive MIMO in 5G: 5G will be using massive MIMO technique that will involve a large number of antennas and the number will more than 10 times larger than previous networks. This will not just give a high amount of beamforming gains but will also increase the capacity of the network. But there is a catch here. The increase in a number of streams will increase the overhead of pilot signals, and because of this, we will use some part of our spectrum. Also, there is an increase in the complexity if we use a high number of antennas. The solution to this overhead is that we can use Non-Linear Estimators and small cells which will help in reducing the effect as at high signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio (SINR) the effect of errors in the signal is very less [4]. III. MAC Layer enhancements Here are some of the enhancements at the MAC layer of 802.11ad and 5G: 1. Beamforming Training in 802.11ad: Beamforming training is a part of directional beamforming in which we select a pair of receiver and transmitter sectors so that the network can be optimized and we can get the best coverage. Figure 5. Sector training in Transmitter and Receiver antenna [2]. Figure 5 shows the sector training process. This is done is three phases. In the first step, we try to find the best transmitting antenna. In the second step, the training of only those transmitting and receiving antennas happens for which the transponder thinks are the best for the network. In the third step, various weights for the antennas are adjusted according to the changes in the channel so as to get the maximum level of Signal to Noise Ratio which will thus be able to get the best coverage for the network. Hence the process of Beamforming training for 802.11ad is completed [2] [3] [7]. 2. Contention-Based Medium Access in 802.11ad: In IEEE 802.11 standards, enhanced distributed channel access (EDCA) is used for contention-based Medium access. But there is an issue of deafness that arises when we use the contention based medium access and directional beamforming together. This can be reduced by using Beamforming training wherein we select the best transmitter and receiver antenna for the communication. Chances of collisions are increased due to deafness because carrier sensing ability is reduced. Multiple Network allocation vector (NAV) timers are used at the MAC level. Here the channel is allocated only if the NAV is zero and will not be allocated in case the NAV is non-zero. The concept of NAV for the contention window in 802.11 standards has been used previously as well. Using this concept will enhance the capacity and efficiency of 802.11ad and will be different from previous standards as it uses direction beamforming [2]. 3. Dynamic Channel Time Allocation in 802.11ad: Dynamic channel time allocation is a polling based allocation of resources in 802.11ad at the MAC layer. The polling is done not just for one frame but for a specific time chunk of the channel. The issue of deafness is avoided due to personal basic service set (PBSS) control point/access point (PCP/AP) that reduces the chance of a collision as PCP/AP knows the path of transmitting antenna. The process of Dynamic Channel time allocation is explained in Figure 6. It shows the Beacon header interval (BHI) can be used in dynamic scheduling. Firstly, a channel is gained by the PCP/AP for the polling frames that are sent to their respective stations. Service period requests (SPRs) are used to reserve a specific channel time for their respective communication. Communication can be between Station (STA)- STA or STA Access Point (AP). Channel protection points act as the guard time between two allocated channel times adding reliability in communication [2]. Figure 6. Dynamic Channel Time Allocation [2]. 4. Full-Duplex MAC Protocol in 5G: At Physical layer level, Full-Duplex must reduce the use spectrum making the communication efficient. At MAC layer level the protocol must be defined such that it optimizes the network and reduces the chances of collision. The problem of a hidden node due to highly directional communication can also arise just like it used to happen in the case of WiFi standards. We can use the concept of Request to Send / Clear to Send (RTS/CTS) which was used in WiFi standards being a half-duplex communication. For 5G we will be using full-duplex clear-to-send (FCTS) instead of just the CTS which was used in WiFi i.e. a unidirectional communication. Figure 7 shows the channel allocation for communication between Node A and Node B. Firstly RTS is sent from Node A to check if there is the availability of the channel. After that there is a Short Interframe Space (SIFS) for which we need to wait for FCTS from Node B. Now being a bidirectional communication (Full-duplex) an FCTS is sent by Node A as wel l which makes it different from WiFi standards. After another SIFS interval, the channel is allocated, and there is a bi-directional communication between Node A and Node B. After the channel time allocated is complete, there is a small SIFS before ACK (Acknowledgement) which is kept and this ACK shows that the channel has been released [11]. Figure 7. Channel Allocation in Full Duplex 5G between Node A and Node B [11]. 5. Device-to-device communications in 5G: It is currently a part of LTE-A Release 12 of the 3gpp standards. Device to device (D2D) communication will be an inter-communication between the devices that will use 5G. There is no need to route the data from the 5G base station in D2D communication. The devices will use the same spectral resources as the 5G network. Thus, we must optimize the network to meet the requirement of the users. This will improve the spectral efficiency of the network and will increase the capacity as well. For D2D communication the devices should be in proximity. This can be very useful in case of Autonomous vehicles such as driverless cars which can communicate with each other and thus protect the passengers. D2D communication can occur in two ways. The first way is that one of the UE (User) can send a broadcast signal about its availability and what it can offer. The discoverer UE if interested in the characteristics of the broadcasting UE establishes a connection. The second way is that one of the UE will broadcast its requirements and the UE which meets these criteria can establish a connection with this UE [12]. IV. Conclusion This paper has shed light on the most recent enhancements taking place in 802.11ad and 5G. The paper has addressed the issue of spectral crunch and how these two technologies will cope up with this issue in the near future. The enhancements introduced in the paper have opened the way for the two technologies to interoperate such that the user can get 5G connectivity when outside and 802.11ad connectivity when inside their homes. Convergence of these two technologies will be made easy not just at the Physical level but at the MAC level too. At physical layer level, we have seen the use of mm-wave and directional beamforming, and at MAC layer level, we have seen full-duplex communication using RTS/CTS in 5G which will increase convergence.   Hence, the convergence of these two technologies will increase the capacity as a lot of unused spectrum will be released. V. References [1] T. Rappaport, S. Sun, R. Mayzus, and H. Zhao, Millimeter Wave Mobile Communications  for 5G Cellular: It Will Work! IEEE Access, pp. 335-349, 2013. [2] T. Nitsche et al., IEEE 802.11ad: Directional 60 GHz Communication for Multi-Gigabit-per-Second Wi-Fi, IEEE Commun. Mag., vol. 52, no. 12, Dec. 2014, pp. 132-41. [3] H. Shokri-Ghadikolaei, C. Fischione, P. Popovski, and M. Zorzi, Design aspects of short-range millimeter-wave networks: A MAC layer perspective, IEEE Netw., vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 88-96, May 2016. [4] V. Jungnickel, K. Manolakis, W. Zirwas, B. Panzner, V. Braun, M. Lossow, M. Sternad, R.  Apelfrojd and T. Svensson, The Role of Small Cells, Coordinated Multipoint, and Massive  MIMO in 5G, IEEE Commun. Mag., pp.44-51, May 2014.   [5] R. Van Nee, Breaking the Gigabit-per-second barrier with S02.11AC, IEEE Wireless Communications, vol. IS, pp. 4-4, April 2011. [6] S. Parkvall, et al., LTE-Advanced Evolving LTE Towards IMT-Advanced, in IEEE Proc.  Vehicular Technology Conference, Sept. 2008. [7] E. Perahia and M. X. Gong. Gigabit wireless lans: an overview of IEEE 802.11 ac and  802.11ad. ACM SIGMOBILE Mobile Computing and Communications Review, 15(3):23-33,  2011. [8] M.2083, Recommendation ITU-R, IMT Vision Framework and overall objectives of the  future development of IMT for 2020 and beyond, September 2015. [9] S. Chen, S. Sun, Q. Gao and X. Su, Adaptive Beamforming in TDD-Based Mobile  Communication Systems: State of the Art and 5G Research Directions, in IEEE Wireless  Communications, vol. 23, no. 6, pp. 81-87, December 2016. [10] X. Zhu, A. Doufexi, and T. Kocak, Throughput and coverage performance for IEEE  802.11ad millimeter-wave WPANs, in Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC Spring), 2011  IEEE 73rd, 2011, pp. 1-5. [11] X. Zhang, W. Cheng, and H. Zhang, Full-duplex transmission in PHY and MAC layers for  5g mobile wireless networks, Wireless Communications, IEEE, vol. 22, no. 5, pp. 112-121,  2015. [12] Z. Ma, Z. Zhang, Z. Ding, P. Fan, and H. Li, Key techniques for 5G wireless  communications: network architecture, physical layer, and MAC layer perspectives, Sci. China  Inf. Sci., vol. 58, no. 4, pp. 1-20, 2015.

Impact of Harassment on the Victim

Impact of Harassment on the Victim How does harassment have a psychological effect on homosexuals? Homosexuality has been an issue for people around the world seemingly since the beginning of time. It is a lifestyle that has been debated, unaccepted and stereotyped.But in recent years, society has welcomed more and more homosexuals into its loving arms under the umbrella of civil liberties. It is become increasingly acceptable to be homosexual in society today.1 Investigation made by the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force Policy Institute including some surveys, found that there was a high percentage of discrimination against homosexual people. The investigation also stated that homosexual people have reported discrimination in public restaurants, medical facilities, insurance, and also education.2 Due to the investigation results the civil rights bills have introduced into the process that will give particular rights of nondiscrimination based on sexual orientation. Now a day as the adult homosexual community increases day by day, there is also an increasing number of homosexual youth in the present day. Results shown by the 1996 National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health found that in over 12,000 teenagers, ages between the 13 and 18, six percent reported same-sex attraction.3 So how does harassment influence a young homosexual psychologically? In order to answer the previous question, we must first deal with issues concerning homosexual discrimination while evaluating facts on the harassment and discrimination that homosexual teenagers have been exposed to and the psychological outcome that this has had on them. Also we must define what sexual orientation is, and study information of how many people in America are homosexual. We must then use the biological perspective to explain the origin of homosexuality. Over the past two decades data supports that there has been discrimination among the homosexual teenagers and that they are regularly being harassed by other people. The different types of harassment that the homosexual people undergo on a dail y basis are presented later on in order to discuss the suffering and psychological problems. Along with the explanation of the different types of harassment, studies made present results that suggest that the victims of the harassment had some type of psychological problem. In this paper we are going to examine the impact of the harassment in homosexual people, the explanation on how psychologists view homosexual trauma, including suicide, and the best ways to get rid of discrimination against homosexual students in school are going to be examined. 2. Sexual Orientation: Sexual orientation is the direction of ones sexual interest toward members of the same (homosexual orientation), opposite (heterosexual orientation), or both sexes (bisexual orientation).4 Homosexual people tend to remind themselves that they were the same as heterosexuals when they were younger, and that it wasnt until during or after they became adults that the majority of them become aware of their homosexual orientation. Most of them didnt announce themselves as homosexuals until they were in their twenties. At the beginning of the twenty-first century the press believed that ten percent of the American population was homosexual, but in 2002, the Gallup survey revealed that an estimated 21 percent of American men are gay and that 22 percent of American women are lesbians.5 Even though knowing the number of homosexuals will not change the civil rights issues, health experts consider that knowing sexual statistics would be very helpful. 3. The Psychology behind Homosexuality: In general, a variety of biological and behavioral traits of homosexual people are different from those of heterosexual people. There are biological associations of sexual orientations found among brain differences, genetic influences, and prenatal hormonal influences. Now a day investigations propose that sexual orientation is, at least, somehow biological. The British-American neuroscientist, Simon LeVay, discovered while studying dead homosexual and heterosexual people, that some sections of the hypothalamus have a connection with homosexual identity. He established out that hypothalamus cell clusters are larger in straight men than in women and gay men. He also stated that the brain does change with sexual orientation, which is completely supported by the theory that establishes that everything that is psychological is also biological.5 LeVay doesnt see the brain as a sexual orientation organ, but, as an essential part of the neural trail connected in sexual behavior. Later on he confirmed his theory as he discovered a parallel difference between the six and ten percent of sheep that presented homosexual orientation, and the ninety or more percent that presented heterosexual orientation. A discovery made by Laura Allen and Roger Gorski, supported LeVays theory, as it established that the corpus callosum or tough body (located in the brain) is one-third larger in homosexual men than in heterosexuals or females. Through this discovery it has been stated, Homosexual men are more likely to have female-typical neuroanatomy than heterosexual men.5 Another factor that may influence sexual orientation is genetics. Investigations were made in sets of twin homosexual brothers, and the results stated that between identical twins, 52 percent shared the brothers orientation, and 22 percent among fraternal twin brothers. So as a result it was concluded that genetics wasnt the only factor that causes homosexual orientation, but that it is a factor that influences.5 An additional theory that has been stated on why twin brothers share similar sexual orientation is that they share the same prenatal environment. Usually in animals and in some human cases, irregular prenatal hormone conditions have been recognized to alter sexual orientation. Throughout the important period after the middle of the second month and up to the fifth month after formation, the structure of the brains neural-hormonal control system have led scientists to structure a hypothesis that states that homosexuals were exposed to unusual prenatal hormones. It has also been proved that contact to the hormone levels inclines the fetus to be attracted to men later in life. Analyses also reveal that homosexual men have spatial abilities more like those of typical heterosexual women. In the case of lesbians it has been shown that they tend to have a more male-typical anatomy. It has been revealed that the hearing system of lesbians build up in a transitional way between those of heter osexual people, due to the fact that there has been some influence from prenatal hormones.5 Dahir Mubarak wrote a magazine article in The Advocate (The U.S. based national gay and lesbian newsmagazine) entitled, Why Are We Gay? which explores whether being gay is influenced by genetics, environment, or biology. He states that, for years, the gay and lesbian political organization has been stating that homosexual orientation is inherited and permanent.6 This has in fact won some few followers to the gay and lesbian civil rights group. The article states, Americans who believe sexual orientation is either genetic or biological are much more likely to support gay and lesbian civil rights than those who believe it is determined primarily by environmental influences.6 Scientists consider that approximately 70 percent of them are influenced genetically to have a homosexual orientation, even though they also think that three percent can influence their sexual operation. Scientists today suppose that homosexual orientation is influenced by genetics, environment, and has biological tendency. Their researches and answers may permit the public to put an end to harassment and discrimination for sexual orientation, if they demonstrate that sexual orientation cannot be manipulated and that it is not only influenced by the environment. 4. The Harassment of Homosexuals: On a daily basis lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people are victims of harassment and violence, for the most part at school. The controversial expressions hate crimes or bias-motivated crimes are frequently used to explain the psychological violence with lesbians, gays, bisexuals, and transgender teenagers must deal. These hate crimes were defined by the U.S congress in 1992, as, when a perpetrator targets a victim because of his or her perceived membership in a certainsocial group, usually defined byracial group, religion, sexual orientation, disability, class, ethnicity, nationality, age, gender, gender identity, social status, or political affiliation.7 In the last decade, the punishment for these hate crimes have develop into much harsher punishments, even though it is more probable to refuse a criminal with a death penalty for murder that is associated with hate. A study was accomplished by Gregory M. Herek, Ph. D, and two of his colleagues, in order to assess the mental health of hate crimes between the years of 1993 and 1996. This investigation was performed on 2300 gays, lesbians and bisexuals. The experiment included more or less an equal number of men and women within an average age of 34 years. The participants were provided a questionnaire about their personal experiences with crime, their attitudes, and beliefs on a diversity of topics, their community participation, and their psychological well being. The researchers found out that hate crimes had more psychological effects than other type of crimes. They researchers also noticed higher levels of pain shown by the gays and lesbians that had survived hate crimes, depression, stress or anger, than those who had survived crimes that were not linked to sexual orientation.8 The researchers accept as true that delicate suffering was caused by the involvement of personal hazard and vulnerab ility with their identity. Along with causing more suffering, the duration of the suffering caused by hate crimes was discovered to last longer than the suffering caused by crimes that had nothing to do with sexual orientation. Among these discoveries there was the prevalence of hate crimes against homosexuals; the reports of these crimes to any kind of authority were rather fewer than other type of crimes, but the majority of all this type of harassment is not the only kind to which this population is exposed.8 Harassment refers to the broad spectrum of offensive behavior. Behaviors that harassment refers to are found to be menacing or alarming, and further than those that are sanctioned by society. The Journal of Adolescent Health has published a study in order to examine the connection between intolerance at school and mental health risks, by using representative information and comparing lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) teenagers with heterosexual teenagers. The data was taken from the 1995 Youth Risk Behavior Survey, given in Massachusetts and Vermont; it included 9188 students, which included 315 students who recognized themselves as either homosexual or bisexual. The studys conclusion stated, The findings supplied evidence that differences in health risks among LGB teenagers are mediated by intolerance in school. Such discrimination of LGB teenagers are associated with health risk behaviors.9 In societies that support free speech, only monotonous, constant and dishonest types of speec h are sanctioned legally as harassment. To comprehend, we must make clear the different types of harassment that are important to todays teenagers. The different types of harassment include bullying, gang stalking, psychological harassment, racial harassment, religious harassment, sexual harassment, stalking, and street harassment. Verbal harassment is the most commonly reported type of harassment, because it contains no boundaries. It is just defined as something that makes a person believe as if he is in menace or that an announcement was taken abusively by the victim. The gay, lesbian, and straight education network (GLSEN) measured the anti-gay harassment found in schools and discovered that 61.1 percent of gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender students reported being verbally harassed.10 The Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology published an article that reviews the verbal and physical abuse of homosexual teenagers. The article states, This answer to gay, lesbian, and bisexual adolescents by significant others in their environment is frequently associated with quite a few challenging outcomes, including school-related problems, runaways, conflict with the law, substance abuse, prostitution, and suicide. Although the causal relationship between these stressors and outcomes has not been scientifical ly established, there is suggestive evidence that these outcomes are consequences of verbal and physical harassment.11 Bullying is one of the many types of harassment that usually takes place on the playground, in the classroom at school, or in the workplace. Typically physical and psychological harassing behavior is carried out against a certain person. Psychological harassment is degrading or offensive behavior that lowers a persons self-esteem or causes him or her a torture. This type of harassment is primarily seen in the form of verbal comments, actions, or gestures. Also psychological harassment can be expressed in the method of writing, such as on restroom walls in school. Sometimes another type of harassment appears which is the stalking, activity in which an unauthorized following and observing of an individual is done, to an extent that the persons privacy is inappropriately interrupted, and in most cases the victim fears for his own wellbeing. In March of 2005, UCLA researchers reported the first study that examined everyday school harassment, which was conducted on the 192 sixth grade students. 47 percent of them reported being bullied at least once during the development of the study, while 46 percent said that they had been bullied at least once. This study is in some way helpful because it addresses the psychological problems that these students were left with after being harassed. Juvonen, Mark and Graham Schuster wrote, Students who reported getting picked on also reported increased embarrassment and fury, while students who saw a classmate picked on reported increased concern and disliked school more.12 Adrienne Nishina, Jana Juvonen, and UCLA developmental psychology graduate student Melissa Witwok recently published in the Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, Middle school students who are bullied in school are likely to feel depressed, lonely and miserable, which in turn makes them more susceptibl e to further bullying incidents12 Because they are different from their school mates, the bullying that homosexual students are subjected to, is considered out of the normal. Homophobia is one of the main reasons the teenagers are often harassed, and homophobia starts early and is often influenced by the adult figures in the childs life. The Institute of Education conducted interviews in 1987, with teachers at schools, and it concluded that 82 percent of teachers are conscious of homophobic bullying, although the school still lacks the attempt to deal with these issues. Homophobic bullying and harassment has been estimated to be the reason of one in five homosexuals attempt to commit suicide or harm themselves. Bullying and harassment are types of disturbance and, therefore, may lead to cause damage to ones health. The warning signs that the victims usually present are the ones that are identified as Post Traumatic Stress Disorder. Aggression and harassment frequently cause the PTSD to be more difficult. Complex PTSD is often untreated because the sufferers of PTSD tend to find it difficult to find any kind of treatment or knowledge of treatment, and, if untreated, PTSD symptoms can last for a lifetime. In homosexual teens today, this seems to be one of the most important issues, because harassment leading up to PTSD, which it commonly does, in most cases prevents people from achieving their goals.13 Sexual harassment is also common among teenagers in educational facilities. In the year 2001, the American Association of University Women conducted an investigation on students in grades 8 to 11, and discovered that 4 out of 5 boys and girls reported some sort of sexual harassment.14 The GLSEN found in a study conducted in 2001 that 46.5 percent reported being sexual harassed. Although the percentage is rather bit smaller, the homosexual community is especially small compared to the total population in the world, and some students may have feared to testify the incidents of being sexually harassed. Over the past year, a national survey was conducted by the Gay, Lesbian and Straight Education Network (GLSEN) and administered to the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender (LGBT) teenagers; and found out that, more than four-fifths of the LGBT teenagers have experienced verbal harassment, and that 42 percent have experienced some kind of sexual harassment. In 1997, an Iowa study found that on an every day average, high school students will hear 25 anti-gay comments. These types of harassment can rise up to physical attacks and even rape. During a five year study finished by the Safe Schools Coalition of Washington State, the researchers documented and stated that there were 111 incidents of anti-gay violence in 73 different schools. This violence included eight gang rapes with students from sixth to eleventh grade. Sexual harassment in America is considered a form of criminal prejudice and it is a form of mental violence. Many victims of psychological harassment go through physical di sorders, irritability, anxiety, nervousness, insomnia, stress, fatigue, depressive states, bum outs, and in some cases, suicide. 5. Suicide, a Result from Harassment: Gay and lesbian teenagers have increased rates of assault, suicide, substance abuse, and homelessness; these events are a reflection of what homophobic attitudes express by others or may be internalized feelings of self-hatred. Adolescents who have by now decide that they are gay or lesbian can happen to be depressed or act out, and commonly become absent or even run away from home, or they may get to express negative feelings towards the family members. Now a day homosexual teens need assistance managing the effects of the persistent attacks by social institutions on their self-esteem and hopes for a successful career.15 Suicide, although not always the result of sexual harassment, is fatal. Suicide is the act of a human being intentionally causing his or her owndeath16 It seems for a lot of people that gay and lesbian teenagers are in danger of committing suicide because of the sexual harassment throughout their lives. Several state and national studies have revealed that, among homosexual teenagers, there are more thoughts and actual suicide attempts than among heterosexual teenagers. Most of the time psychologists consider suicide as a way to call the attention of people. They also believe that reasons for suicide are not only external but also internal, meaning there is a chemical imbalance. They have not found any relations of suicide of homosexuals due to internal problems. This is important because it strongly suggests that sexual harassment is the major cause of suicide of homosexuals with internal problems. Statistics for homosexual suicide have fluctuated between 30 percent to less than 1 p ercent. Peter LaBarbera, in an article titled The Gay Youth Suicide Myth, uses statistics provided by Dr. David Shaffer, one of Americas authorities on suicides throughout todays teens. LaBarbera quotes Dr. Shaffer by saying, by broadening the definition, we therefore ran the risk of overdetermining the number of gay suicides. In spite of this, out of 107 male teen suicides, only three were known to have talked to others about a homosexual experience (2.7%) and two of these three died together in a suicide pact. A further four showed some behavior that could have been indicative of homosexuality. None of the female suicides were thought to have been lesbian. If all of the teenagers who showed any evidence of homosexual behavior were indeed gay, then a total of 6% of the suicides in our study would have been gay. Once again, there is no evidence that a large proportion of suicides are gay, but [6% is] more or less [what] we would expect in the general population17 In Oklahoma suicide, is the second most common cause of death in people among the ages of 13 and 25, including both sexes and all races. In the year 2003, according to the National Center of Injury Prevention and Control, 76 young adults in Oklahoma committed suicide. Out of that, five were homosexuals. Oklahomas statistics were considered because it is believed to be an enthusiastic and conservative state, considering it was one of the 11 states in November 2004 approving [the] constitutional amendments codifying marriage as an exclusively heterosexual institution. Additionally, the state defined it as a misconduct crime to issue a marriage license to a same sex couple.18 Throughout the United States, there were 4620 suicides in the year 2003, and the homosexual community accounted for 277 for all those deaths. Taking into consideration the population of the United States, 277 does not seem like a lot of people, but considering that the homosexual community only makes up 1percent or 2 percent of the whole country, it is quite a few. Suicide rates are significant to examine at in this case, even though it is difficult to do so because sexual orientation is not listed on ones death certificate. 6. Conclusion: In conclusion, harassment does have an effect on a homosexual individual by making him either feel stressed, afraid of being open with his sexual orientation, or even suicidal. There are all diverse types of harassment that face up to homosexuals, but all result in psychological violence against the individual, and it is essential to note that the reason that homosexuals have psychological difficulties is not because of their homosexuality, but rather than, from the harassment to which they are exposed. One of the psychological results from homosexual harassment is PTSD, which weakens the victim from the pressure of a traumatic occurrence; bullying and sexual harassment can cause this also. The most crucial result from homosexual harassment is suicide. The suicidal teenagers feel that the pressure of the attacks is too challenging and that they cant live with the weight of being homosexual. Suicide is the result of all types of harassment, including verbal, physical, and sexual harassment, which is the reason that discussing homosexual harassment is so important. The reason that homosexuals are treated differently is because people are not well-informed about homosexuality. The National Association of School Psychologists recognizes that children who question their sexual orientation are at a greater risk of harmful situations, such as suicide, physical and verbal harassment, and physical violence. These risks usually take place for the child at school, and in their study the NASP concluded that 28% of the students missed at least one day of school as a result of feeling unsafe because they questioned their sexuality. Their suggestions for creating a safe school for sexual minority teenagers include establishing and enforcing non-discrimination policies that apply to all students, educating students and staff, intervening when a student is harassing or being harassed, along with giving that student support. In order for the homosexual youth to feel secure at school, these students need to be incorporated in the non-discrimination policy that most schools have. The students and staff then need to be involved because of all the consequences that may follow the harassment of a homosexual student or peer. The education of students and staff about sexual minority teenagers should include a meticulous in service training on all diversities of human beings, as well as including pertinent research of the risks experienced by homosexual youth. Consequences should be applied to the perpetrators, but psychotherapy should be offered to both the victim and the perpetrator.

Exploring Cultural Identity in Shakespeares Hamlet Essay -- Shakespea

Exploring Cultural Identity in Shakespeare's Hamlet In William Shakespeare's play Hamlet, the concept of cultural identity is explored through Hamlet's isolation which is created by the conflict between his duty to his father, and his duties to the monarchy and society. Hamlet is isolated from his society due to his turbulent emotions which result from his indecision on how to respond to his father's murder. Hamlet's duty as a son is to avenge his father's death and he would be supported in his actions by society if the murderer was believed to be guilty. Hamlet's duty as a citizen and a Prince is to protect the King and to ensure stability in the monarchy. In order for Hamlet to revenge his father he would have to kill the King which creates a conflict between his two primary duties. Because of this, Hamlet finds it difficult to decide how to proceed and which duty takes precedence, and Hamlet decides to gather evidence as proof of Claudius' guilt so that his revenge is justified to society and to himself. The 'unholiness' of murderi ng a king who is also a close relative is highlighted by Claudius and this allows the audience to better understand the conflict and the indecision facing Hamlet. Hamlet's duty as a son, in his social context and circumstances, is one which encourages him to seek revenge for his murdered father. For Hamlet to be perceived as a noble and worthy son, he would have to kill his father's murderer, and his actions would be supported by society as long as the murderer was believed to be guilty. In Hamlet's first soliloquy after the encounter with the ghost early in the play, when the ghost tells him that he must seek revenge, Hamlet quickly acknowledges his duty as a son. Hamlet: I'll wipe a... ...come to terms with his revenge. The 'unholiness' of killing a king and a close relative is highlighted by Claudius when he reflects on his own crime of killing King Hamlet. Through this, a deeper understanding of the conflict facing Hamlet and of his turbulent emotions occurs. Hamlet dies at the end, fulfilling his duty as a son and his duty to society, by purging the corrupt from the monarchy and avenging his father's death. Works Cited and Consulted Greenblatt, Stephen. Social Energy and Identity in Shakespeare. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998. Kreiger, Elliot. "Malvolio and Class Ideology". Bloom (19-26). Nevo, Ruth. Identity Transformation in Shakespeare. London: Methuen & Co., 1980. Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Global Shakespeare Theatre Series. 1996 Thatcher, David. Discrepancy in Cultural Identity in Shakespeare. New York: Peter Lang, 1999.

Racism and Sexism in Toni Morrisons Sula Essay -- Toni Morrison Sula

Racism and Sexism in Toni Morrison's Sula Racism and sexism are both themes that are developed throughout the novel Sula, by Toni Morrison. The book is based around the black community of "The Bottom," which itself was established on a racist act. Later the characters in this town become racist as well. This internalized racism that develops may well be a survival tactic developed by the people over years, which still exists even at the end of the novel. The two main characters of this novel are Nel Wright and Sula Peace. They are both female characters and are often disadvantaged due to their gender. Nel and Sula are depicted as complete opposites that come together to almost complete one another through their once balanced friendship. Nel is shown to be a good character because she plays a socially acceptable role as a woman, submissive wife and mother, while Sula conforms to no social stereotypes and lets almost nothing hold her back, thus she is viewed as evil by the people in her community. Both women are judged b y how well they fit into the preconceived social conventions and stereotypes that exist in "the Bottom." The social conventions that are set up in this book play out in a small black community in Ohio called "the Bottom." The community itself formed when a white slave owner tricked his naà ¯ve black slave into accepting hilly mountainous land that would be hard to farm and very troublesome instead of the actual bottom (fertile valley) land that he was promised. The slave was told "when God looks down, it's the bottom. That's why we call it so. It's the bottom of heaven-best land there is" (4), and on the basis of this lie a community was formed. Its almost as if the towns misfortune is passed down ... ... what happened as a turn in life and does not feel like she is the cause of Chicken Little's death. She mourns his death and then moves on. Sula has a feminist spirit and refuses to melt into the typical mold of a woman. She "discovered years before that [she was] neither white nor male, and that all freedom and triumph was forbidden to [her]" (52). Because of this she decides to lead her life on her own terms. Sula encounters both racism and sexism and is placed in a situation in which she has no release for her wild spirit. She cannot live out in the world with the freedoms of a man, but doesn't want to live as a stereotypically sheltered woman either. In attempting to break these boundaries she is hated by the town and viewed as an "evil" person by the community in which she lives. Works Cited: Morrison, Toni. Sula. Plume. New York: 1973.

Foucault – Power/Knowledge

Foucault’s theorisation of the power/knowledge relationship Foucault in theorizing the relationship between power and knowledge basically focused on how power operated in the institutions and in its techniques. The point is how power was supported by knowledge in the functioning of institutions of punishment. â€Å"He places the body at the centre of the struggles between different formations of power/knowledge. The techniques of regulation are applied to the body† (Wheterell et al. , 2001: 78) Power is the ability to control others or one’s entity. Accordingly it can be defined as a kind of strength or as an authority. There are various theorisations about the meaning of this term in sociology thus it would be hard to give a comprehensive definition. Is power a relationship? What kind of outcome does it produce? Can it modify behaviour and can it reduce the power of others? (Waters, 1994: 217) All of these questions can be answered in a different way. The point might be over whom and upon what can this power be exercised. Foucault frequently uses power and knowledge together in the phrase power/knowledge. He claims these two are inseparable. A general expression exists which conjoins the two into â€Å"knowledge is power. † Foucault reverses the logic of this expression in arguing that possession of knowledge does not give one power but gaining power means having knowledge at the same time as â€Å"knowledge is already deeply invested with power† thus it is better to agree on â€Å"power is knowledge†. (Appelrouth and Edles, 2008: 643) Knowledge can be expounded as the awareness of some fact or as a skill that the individual achieved or inherited. In Foucault’s interpretation both idea turned up in the analysis of the â€Å"Panopticon† and the â€Å"plague stricken town†. Being aware of the events happened somewhere is knowledge and this knowledge gives power to those whom got to know about that events although this knowledge could not have been acquired in the lack of power as there would not have been any opportunity to get into a position which allows the observation to get to know something. That is the basis of Foucault’s idea about knowledge and power as oneness and the reason for why is important to think other about the â€Å"power is knowledge† and â€Å"knowledge is power† correspondence. Discipline and Punish (1975) is Foucault’s best genealogical investigation. Appelrouth and Edles, 2008: 643) At the beginning he describes a public torture which was a totally accepted from of punishment in the 18th century. Dramatically introduces the whole process without attitudinizing as those days public execution was a common event, the illustrated torture was as real as he presents it. As norms and attitudes changed in lat ter centuries public tortures has become not popular anymore, people were sentenced to go to prison where a completely different penalty system has been running. Foucault describes typical activities and every day life of the inmates. The point of these two presentations is to show that the changes of methods of punishment correlate with cultural and social changes in the all-time society. (Appelrouth and Edles, 2008: 648) In the second part he â€Å"draws a parallel between the aggressive mechanism used by plague-stricken cities in the late seventeenth century and Bentham’s Panopticon which was intended to be the model for the perfectly rational and efficient prison. † (Appelrouth and Edles, 2008: 648) The point of these comparisons is to reveal how knowledge developed and how this development influenced the society. As knowledge grows and becomes deeper the new understanding of the social and physical world â€Å"generates new locations for the application of power†. (Appelrouth and Edles, 2008: 646) Foucault describes two old mechanisms which was widely used, the public execution as an old form of punishment and the actions against plague that emerged in a town. A new type of punishment became popular which aims to punish the soul not the body as it was common before. There is no more physical torture but torture of the soul. These two old mechanisms alien to the latter methods: the usage of new strict rules that determines the prisoner’s life and the new method of control, the idea of the Panopticon which put surveillance from only one place forward. When plague turned up the old system followed the then methods of observation and surveillance, plague was everywhere thus the supporting power must have been mobilized. In this case â€Å"power is mobilized; it makes itself everywhere present and visible; it invents new mechanism; it separates; it immobilizes† etc. o make people act as it was expected in these conditions (because of the plague almost every interactions must have been stopped in the interest of getting rid of the disease). (Foucault, 1975) The Panopticon instead of exercising power from several sides emphasises the importance and perfection of the surveillance focus from one place. The Panopticon is a building which has an annual part in the periphery and a tower in the centre. Next to omitting little details its most important feature is the ability to see into every cells without being visible. The panoptic mechanism arranges spatial unities that make it possible to see constantly and to recognize immediately. † (Calhoun et al. , 2007: 209) The consciousness of being watched make people put on their best behaviour, their best way of acting thus the inmates do not commit any further crimes as it usually occurs that could happen without being watched. The operation of this building gives the opportunity to work with less employees because only a few overseers necessary being in the tower to check all the cells continuously. This way only a few supervisors needed to control these employees thus it is more economical. The supervision of the plague-stricken town would have cost a lot as a complex system ran which needed a big amount of labour force. As techniques develop and new forms of penalty system emerge costs become lesser. Knowledge grows and makes institutions more efficient as knowledge itself is efficient. â€Å"As knowledge grows the techniques of discipline and surveillance multiply such that power takes on an ever-increasing number of forms. † (Appelrouth and Edles, 2008: 646) The question is if knowledge produces more power or comes from power. The major effect of the Panopticon is to induce in the inmate a state of conscious and permanent visibility that assures the automatic functioning of power. â€Å" (Calhoun et al. , 2007: 210) Accordingly power is what is functioning all the time and knowledge could not be without presence of power. Although as Faucault (1975) claims: â€Å"power and knowledge directly imply one another; there is no power relation without the correlati ve constitution of a field of knowledge, nor any knowledge that does not presuppose and constitute at the same time power relations†. Thus knowledge and power can not exist independently from each other. Benthams laid down two principles about power relating to the Panopticon: it must be visible and unverifiable. The inmates will constantly have before their eyes the tall outline of the central tower from which they are spied upon and must never know whether they are being looked, but they must be sure that they may always be so. (Calhoun et al. , 2007: 210) These two principles give the opportunity to exercise power over the prisoners. The other very important thing is that this system is not only successful in prison but in every kind of institutions. Could be practiced in school or even in an office, people became successfully regulated by the power if vision. The idea of the Panopticon is a metaphor for the general presence of a new penalty system which is called the disciplinary society by Foucault. (Appelrouth and Edles, 2008: 644) This society is disciplined by being constantly watched and punished by excluded them from normal society. Criminals and those whom do not follow the laid down rules are not punished in front of public anymore. There is no need to express power visibly to gain belief in it. Waters, 1994: 231-232) â€Å"Panopticonseque surveillance has become so effective that individuals now sanction and normalize their own behaviour without any prompting, surveilling and disciplining themselves as if they were simultaneously the inmate and guard of their own self-produced Panopticon. † (Appelrouth and Edles, 2008: 646) What if that surveillance is not that effective and something breaks the discipline? The w hole system can lose its power when turns out that this observation is not accurate. Surveillance must be continuous all the time otherwise people lose their belief in the power of it. Once someone realises that can commit an offence or just do something against the rules without being caught the whole system can be questioned. The best example for this is public cameras all over the streets nowadays, although people know that they are visible whatever they do still commit crimes and do unacceptable things. The offender can not be completely sure about being watched or not. The same situation prevails in a school or office where the employees and students know that they can be lucky and might be not watched. If once punishment does not take place the individual can take under consideration the fact of being always watched thus disciplined behaviour is not guaranteed anymore. Foucault’s genealogical investigation is about to look on how power/knowledge and forms of punishment changed during the past few centuries. â€Å"Until turn of the nineteenth century criminal deviance was controlled by public attacks on the offender’s body. † (Waters, 1994: 231) Public execution was quite common in the 18th Century (although it is still ongoing even today in some countries), â€Å"Foucault identifies such punishments as political rituals†. Waters, 1994: 231) Torture was the expression of power, presented how the offender is punished if commits an offence against the only sovereign power. This sovereign power was one â€Å"centralized authority, like a king†. (Appelrouth and Edles, 2008: 643) According to Foucault punishment went through another two stages since pub lic tortures (which is the first stage). This form of punishment is considered unacceptable nowadays, but not because it goes too far, â€Å"rather it is because punishment and the power that guides it have taken new, more acceptable forms. (Appelrouth and Edles, 2008: 643) Punishment became invisible and kinder to the body, to be disciplined was the point rather than to be punished. The second stage of penal practices was based on surveillance and discipline what was aimed to harm the mind. (Appelrouth and Edles, 2008: 644) Public execution can be considered as a terrible kind of punishment, but torture of the mind is the worst. Physical pain could have been unbearable during these public tortures but psychical pain over years and years is tougher as it has no end. With the birth of prison power started to practice the new, less crucial form of penalty which may be more sinister than it seems. Foucault’s three stages can be distinguished by the time period when that form of punishment were popular, by the basis of authority/power was in power, and by the methods how these punishments were practiced. In the 18th Century, as it was mentioned before, the penalty system was leaded by a central authority which could have been a king or one single corporation of the government. The method was a kind of â€Å"public corporal punishment† that is in Foucault’s Discipline and Punish the public execution, the public torture. (Appelrouth and Edles, 2008: 646 Table 15. 2) In addition this torture took place in public. Later on among so many changes torture as a public spectacle disappeared. (Foucault, 1975) The second phase of punishment emerged in the 19th-20th Century when the basis of power was a decentralized institution. Methods were based on surveillance and discipline like in Bentham’s Panopticon or in the plague-stricken town. Appelrouth and Edles, 2008: 646 Table 15. 2) Today, in the 21th Century we are in the third stage of punishment where there are multiple principles about the authority of the penalty system, multiple self-regulations exist and power is diffusive. The trend of the second phase is intensified in the third. â€Å"Power has become destructed and individualized†, â€Å"disciplinary individuals† turned up . â€Å"No longer are social structures and specific institutions necessary for the exercise of power and the meting out of punishment. (Appelrouth and Edles, 2008: 646) In Discipline and punish Foucault analyses the ways how the offender is disciplined in different punishment regimes. In early times punishments were crude, â€Å"prisons were places into which the public could wander†. (Wheterell et al. , 2001: 78) The latter form of regulation and power became private. Inmates were closed into prisons with an invisible system. Public could not see into these institutions anymore. Punishment became individualized and â€Å"the body has become a site of a new kind of disciplinary regime. Of course this body is not simply the natural body which all human beings possess at all times. † (Wheterell et al. , 2001: 78) Knowledge determines this body, the knowledge about the offence and offender. â€Å"This body is produced within discourse †¦ the state of knowledge about crime and criminal, what counts as true about how to change or deter criminal behaviour†¦ This is a radically historicized conception of the body. † (Wheterell et al. , 2001: 78) Foucault carried out a genealogical analysis of punishment and discipline. This analysis, among others, was based on the power/knowledge relationship which was at least as altering as the forms of the penalty systems were showed in the historical review. Various techniques were used to punish and these techniques were influenced by the exercised power in one place one time. The perfect institution to practice power and discipline/punish offenders is the building of the Panopticon. According to Foucault this building is the answer for all questions turned up with other methods of punishment. Bibliography Appelrouth, Scott and Laura Desfor Edles. 2007. Classical and contemporary sociological theory: text and readings. Pine Forge Press: 641-665. Calhoun, Craig J. , Joseph Gerteis and James Moody. 2007. Contemporary sociological theory. Wiley-Blackwell: 209-216. Foucault, Michel. 1995. Discipline & punish. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. Waters, Malcolm. 1994. Modern sociological theory. SAGE: 217-233. Wetherell, Margaret, Stephanie Taylor, Simeon Yates. 2001. Discourse theory and practice: a reader. SAGE.

Leonardo Di Ser Piero Da Vinci

Leonardo was a man of many different talents; among those talents were polymath, painter, sculptor, architect, musician, scientist, inventor, engineer, writer, geologist, anatomist, cartographer, anatomist, and botanist. Leonardo was primarily known for his painting (Mona Lisa, the last supper, Vitamins Man), and his fascinating inventions (Helicopter, tank, flying Machine, Viola Organists) which I will be talking about in depth in my research paper. First study science, and then follow with practice based on science†¦..The painter who draws by practice and judgment of the eye without the use of reason is like the mirror the reproduces within itself all the objects which are set opposite to it without knowledge of the same†¦. The youth ought first to learn perspective, then the proportions of everything, then he should learn from the hand off good master. Leonardo Dad Vinci The Renaissance marked the transition point from the middle ages to the modern world. Young Leonardo Did Seer Piper Dad Vince received his education of Painter, sculptor, and engineering in Florence in the early sass.In a time when coming with a new approach toward science was considered a direct insult or challenge to the church, Leonardo managed to project his new finding of science, Mathematics formulas, and logical reasoning without creating a new reform of cultural beliefs. Among his reaction we can find what is considered to be an early predecessor of today's helicopter. Between 1480 and 1493 Leonardo Dad Vinci designed what is known today as the â€Å"Aerial Screw' or also known as the â€Å"Helical Air Screw'.Leonardo Helical Air Screw measure approximately fifteen feet across and the material used to build it were reed, linen, and wire. The main power proportion came from four men that were standing in the middle of the craft rotating different pedals in order to rotate the screw like shaft (See figure L-1). Leonardo was a very methodical reader and writer. He often read books that interest him with pen on hand. He was so critical of himself that he used to describe his though in writing, and draw them most of the time in order to retrace his thinking.In the old time it was common for inventors to read others innovators ideas in order to create new ones or reproduce the same invention with improvements. One of those creations was the Leonardo â€Å"Assault Vehicle†. After researching Roberto Evaluator's â€Å"De re military', Leonardo Dad Vinci went ahead and created the Assault Vehicle with a technology that was unheard of at the time. Due to the lack of funds and the war at the Apennines Peninsula Leonardo had o restrain his master creation to Just a blueprint.The Assault Vehicle had an upside- down cone shape with four wheels at the bottom, and a crankshaft for propulsion. Been that Leonardo was so critical of his own invention, he decided to make improvement to his own invention at a later time. One of those improvements was the vehicle self-propulsion. Leonardo achieved this improvement by creating a spring-power system (As the Motor), and an innovated differential transmission system. (L-2 Picture of Assault Vehicle) Another area in which Leonardo Dad Vinci broke new ground was painting.But to his misfortune in life by 1514 most of his paintings were not completed due to lack of commissions and Italian's wars. One of those paintings happened to be the â€Å"Mona Lisa† or â€Å"La Cocooned† a 16th century oil painting portray of â€Å"Lisa did Antonio Maria Grenadine† which in today's expert opinion it is one of the most impossible to comprehend painting in the history of art. Leonardo started to paint the Mona Lisa in 1503 under the commission of Francesco did Bartholomew did Zinnia del Giaconda and finished nil 519 shortly before he died.By 1511 Leonardo had to migrate under the Melee family protection to Vapor where he sided and produced magnificent creation of arts for two years in order to repay the Melee family hospitality. While at Vapor Leonardo continued to develop his new projects and improving his paintings knowing that sooner or later he will have to find a more suitable patron in order to be able to finance his work. The solution to financial impasse came in February 1 513 in the hand of Giovanni De' Medici, the younger descendent of Lorenz IL Magnificent. With the death of Pope Julius II in Rome and Giovanni asserted to papacy under the name of Pope Leo X.Giuliani De' Medici rather of Pope Leo X and by them commander of the papal army, invited Leonardo to Rome for his knowledge of art and military technology. The invitation to Rome by Giuliani De' Medici was the opportunity that Leonardo Dad Vinci was waiting for. Unlimited commissions, immeasurable social status, and a very power full patron. What else? By September 1513 Leonardo relocated himself back to Rome where he was accommodated in the Vatican luxury Belvedere villas together with all his painting including some half stages such us the Lead, the Mona Lisa, and the Saint Anne. Leonardo Di Ser Piero Da Vinci Leonardo was a man of many different talents; among those talents were polymath, painter, sculptor, architect, musician, scientist, inventor, engineer, writer, geologist, anatomist, cartographer, anatomist, and botanist. Leonardo was primarily known for his painting (Mona Lisa, the last supper, Vitamins Man), and his fascinating inventions (Helicopter, tank, flying Machine, Viola Organists) which I will be talking about in depth in my research paper. First study science, and then follow with practice based on science†¦..The painter who draws by practice and judgment of the eye without the use of reason is like the mirror the reproduces within itself all the objects which are set opposite to it without knowledge of the same†¦. The youth ought first to learn perspective, then the proportions of everything, then he should learn from the hand off good master. Leonardo Dad Vinci The Renaissance marked the transition point from the middle ages to the modern world. Young Leonardo Did Seer Piper Dad Vince received his education of Painter, sculptor, and engineering in Florence in the early sass.In a time when coming with a new approach toward science was considered a direct insult or challenge to the church, Leonardo managed to project his new finding of science, Mathematics formulas, and logical reasoning without creating a new reform of cultural beliefs. Among his reaction we can find what is considered to be an early predecessor of today's helicopter. Between 1480 and 1493 Leonardo Dad Vinci designed what is known today as the â€Å"Aerial Screw' or also known as the â€Å"Helical Air Screw'.Leonardo Helical Air Screw measure approximately fifteen feet across and the material used to build it were reed, linen, and wire. The main power proportion came from four men that were standing in the middle of the craft rotating different pedals in order to rotate the screw like shaft (See figure L-1). Leonardo was a very methodical reader and writer. He often read books that interest him with pen on hand. He was so critical of himself that he used to describe his though in writing, and draw them most of the time in order to retrace his thinking.In the old time it was common for inventors to read others innovators ideas in order to create new ones or reproduce the same invention with improvements. One of those creations was the Leonardo â€Å"Assault Vehicle†. After researching Roberto Evaluator's â€Å"De re military', Leonardo Dad Vinci went ahead and created the Assault Vehicle with a technology that was unheard of at the time. Due to the lack of funds and the war at the Apennines Peninsula Leonardo had o restrain his master creation to Just a blueprint.The Assault Vehicle had an upside- down cone shape with four wheels at the bottom, and a crankshaft for propulsion. Been that Leonardo was so critical of his own invention, he decided to make improvement to his own invention at a later time. One of those improvements was the vehicle self-propulsion. Leonardo achieved this improvement by creating a spring-power system (As the Motor), and an innovated differential transmission system. (L-2 Picture of Assault Vehicle) Another area in which Leonardo Dad Vinci broke new ground was painting.But to his misfortune in life by 1514 most of his paintings were not completed due to lack of commissions and Italian's wars. One of those paintings happened to be the â€Å"Mona Lisa† or â€Å"La Cocooned† a 16th century oil painting portray of â€Å"Lisa did Antonio Maria Grenadine† which in today's expert opinion it is one of the most impossible to comprehend painting in the history of art. Leonardo started to paint the Mona Lisa in 1503 under the commission of Francesco did Bartholomew did Zinnia del Giaconda and finished nil 519 shortly before he died.By 1511 Leonardo had to migrate under the Melee family protection to Vapor where he sided and produced magnificent creation of arts for two years in order to repay the Melee family hospitality. While at Vapor Leonardo continued to develop his new projects and improving his paintings knowing that sooner or later he will have to find a more suitable patron in order to be able to finance his work. The solution to financial impasse came in February 1 513 in the hand of Giovanni De' Medici, the younger descendent of Lorenz IL Magnificent. With the death of Pope Julius II in Rome and Giovanni asserted to papacy under the name of Pope Leo X.Giuliani De' Medici rather of Pope Leo X and by them commander of the papal army, invited Leonardo to Rome for his knowledge of art and military technology. The invitation to Rome by Giuliani De' Medici was the opportunity that Leonardo Dad Vinci was waiting for. Unlimited commissions, immeasurable social status, and a very power full patron. What else? By September 1513 Leonardo relocated himself back to Rome where he was accommodated in the Vatican luxury Belvedere villas together with all his painting including some half stages such us the Lead, the Mona Lisa, and the Saint Anne.